WELFARE FACILITIES FOR WORKERS

 Welfare facilities 



Why welfare facilities? 

Work in the construction industry is arduous; it involves much manual or physical activity. It is also hazardous and dirty. Good welfare facilities not only improve workers’ welfare but also enhance efficiency.

Welfare facilities such as the provision of drinking water, washing, sanitary and changing accommodation, rest-rooms and shelter, facilities for preparing and eating meals, temporary housing, assistance in transport from place of residence to the work site and back, all help to reduce fatigue and improve workers’ health (figure 56). The facilities may be provided and maintained by one contractor for all workers or by individual contractors.

Point to remember: 

• Welfare facilities improve morale and consequently improve efficiency.

Sanitary facilities 

National laws usually prescribe the type, number, and standard of sanitary facilities which should be provided, but as a general guide the following should be regarded as a practical minimum:

– a sufficient number of water flush-type lavatories for men when this is practicable, including sufficient urinal accommodation; chemical lavatories may be used otherwise;

– a sufficient number of separate water flush-type lavatories for women when this is practicable; again, chemical lavatories may be an alternative;

– the accommodation should be designed and constructed so as to screen the occupants from view and afford protection against the weather;

– the accommodation should be separate from any messroom or rest-room;

– a smooth and impermeable floor;

– effective natural and/or artificial lighting and ventilation;

– at least 30 m from any well;

– constructed for easy maintenance and cleaned out at least daily.

Washing facilities 

Work in the construction industry is often dusty and dirty; it may also involve handling chemicals and other dangerous substances so that you need to wash your hands and bodies regularly:

– to prevent chemicals contaminating food and so being eaten during snacks or meals, being absorbed through the skin or being carried home;
– to remove dirt and grime, which can also be ingested and cause sickness and disease;
– as a basic hygiene measure.

When construction work involves the maintenance of or alterations to existing buildings, it is often possible to use the facilities which form part of the building. Otherwise, washing facilities should be provided to the following standards:

– one wash-basin for every 15 workers with a sufficient supply of water and an adequate means of removing wastewater;
– soap, in the form of cake soap, or liquid or powder soap in a special dispenser, to facilitate quick and proper washing, nail-brushes are needed where poisonous substances are used;
– suitable drying facilities such as paper towels, roller towels (or individual towels for each worker) or electric hand-dryers;
– for facilities likely to be of longer duration, mirrors and shelves at each washing point which will help to keep the place tidy and clean;
– where workers are exposed to skin contamination by chemical substances or by oil or grease, a sufficient number of showers, which should be disinfected daily;
– facilities should be covered to provide weather protection, and effectively ventilated and lit.

Facilities for supplying food and drink, and eating meals

Facilities for supplying food at construction work sites can be particularly

Point to remember:
• Play your part in keeping the facilities clean.


Points to remember:
• Always wash your hands before you eat meals.
• Do not take home dirt from the site on you or your clothes.

areas. Remoteness, together with an inadequate temporary housing which lacks cooking facilities, may give rise to considerable problems for workers in the availability and regularity of hygienically prepared and nutritious meals. The problems of shift workers may be even greater.

To meet the need for proper meals, a choice of facilities should be made available:

– facilities to boil water and heat food;
– facilities (including the provision of space, shelter, water, heating and rubbish bins) for vendors to sell hot and cold food and drink;
– a canteen supplying cooked meals or serving packed meals, snacks, and beverages;
– arrangements with a restaurant or canteen near the work site to supply packaged meals.

The meal area 

There should be accommodation with tables and seats, protected from the weather, where one can eat in comfort food brought from home or bought from vendors. It should be situated away from workstations to minimize contact with dirt, dust or dangerous substances.

 Drinking-water 

Drinking-water is essential for workers in the construction industry, irrespective of the type of work they do. You lose several litres of water a day while at work and without replacement you gradually dehydrate, the loss is greater in a hot environment.

Arrangements for the supply of safe drinking-water may be:

– individual closed water bottles or containers when no other facilities are available, hung close to the workplace in a shaded place, free from dust and with plenty of air in circulation, cool water helps avoid heat exhaustion. Containers should be cleaned and disinfected at suitable intervals;
– drinking-water containers made of impermeable materials with suitable covers, kept in a cool, protected place. Unglazed pottery containers keep water cool, and they should be kept in dust-free places. The containers should be cleaned regularly by a designated person;
– drinking-water fountains from a public supply with the water outlet shielded in a manner that prevents the lips of the drinker from being placed against it. Drinking-water fountains are more hygienic than taps and drinking vessels;
– water taps from a public supply clearly labelled to distinguish between drinkable and non-drinkable water. It is preferable to use disposable cups or to provide a separate cup for each worker.

Drinking-water should not be placed in sanitary facilities, or in places where it can be contaminated by dust, chemicals or other substances. Whatever the source of water supply for drinking, whether at the mess accommodation or elsewhere on the site, it should be clearly marked as drinking-water in words or with a suitable sign.


Point to remember:
• Construction work is physically exhausting, and you need hygienically prepared and nutritious meals at regular times.


Point to remember:
• Drink water only from sources clearly marked as drinking water.

 Facilities for changing, storing and drying clothes 

Secure facilities at the work site for changing from street clothes into work clothes, and for airing and drying the latter, greatly assist workers with their personal hygiene and tidiness and relieve them of anxiety over the security of their possessions.

Changing-rooms are particularly important when workers change from street clothes into protective clothing and when working clothes become wet or dirty. The facilities should include provision for drying wet clothes, whether it be street or working clothing. Separate changing facilities for men and women workers should be provided, at least by adequate screening.

The provision of adequate seats, mirrors and rubbish bins in the changing rooms or close to the lockers will assist workers in paying attention to personal appearance and cleanliness.

Rest breaks 

Construction workers begin work early. They start their day alert and productive but their activity level decreases as the day passes. Fatigue develops gradually before it begins to have marked effects. If you rest before you show signs of being really tired, recovery is much faster. Short breaks taken frequently are much better than infrequent long breaks. Productivity improves with frequent rest breaks.

 Frequency of rest breaks 

National law may prescribe the length of a working day which includes a period or periods for rest breaks. At least one ten-minute break in the morning and one in the afternoon, in addition to a longer break for lunch, are essential.

Workers are not just idle during rest breaks but are recovering from fatigue and preparing for continued productive work. Getting away from a noisy or polluted workplace helps to relax and recover from fatigue, and an area with seating and out of direct sunlight should be set aside for rest breaks.

Child-care facilities 

Working mothers employed at construction sites often need help with the special problems of caring for their children while they are at work.

 Basic provisions 

A clean and well-ventilated room, preferably with access to an enclosed space, is the main facility needed. A few items of simple furniture are necessary for the children to sit or lie down, and some toys help. There should be provided for feeding the children with nutritious meals at regular times and, for this, there should also be access to cooking facilities or a canteen.
It is essential for someone to care for the children while their mothers are at work, prepare their meals and feed them regularly. It may be possible for mothers themselves to take turns to look after the children. Mothers, especially nursing mothers, should be able to visit their children during recognized breaks from work.

Watch the children’s movements 

Each year there are many tragic deaths of children on construction sites. Children should never be allowed to wander into or play on sites. There are excavations to fall into, scaffolding to fall from, hazardous equipment,

Point to remember:

• Breaks which are short and taken often are better than long breaks taken infrequently.
loose and dangerous building materials, and chemicals lying about.

Discussion 

If you agree that good work-related welfare facilities improve workers’ health and morale and their efficiency, resulting in improved productivity and better work relations, what measures have you seen taken to improve the following types of the provision at construction sites?

– lavatories;
– washing facilities;
– eating facilities;
– facilities for changing and storing clothes;
– drinking-water;
– rest breaks;
– child-care facilities.

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE SAFETY

 Hazardous substances

 Cement

Cement mixes are a well-known cause of skin disease. Both irritant and allergic contact dermatitis can result from proximity to wet cement. Prolonged exposure to wet cement (for example, if you kneel or stand in it) may cause cement burns or ulceration of the skin. The following precautions should be taken:

– Avoid breathing in cement dust, as well dust created by the surface treatment of hardened concrete which may contain a high silica content, by wearing suitable respiratory protective equipment.

– Protect the skin from contact by wearing long-sleeved clothing and full-length trousers, with rubber boots and gloves when required.

– Protect the eyes; if any cement gets into the eyes, rinse them immediately with plenty of warm water.

– Immediately wash off any dust or freshly mixed cement that gets on to the skin.

– Clean off your clothing and boots after work.

 Asbestos

Breathing in asbestos dust can kill by causing irreversible lung damage and cancer. There is no known cure for asbestos-related diseases. The more asbestos dust breathed in, the greater the risk to health. There are control limits for the various types of asbestos. You are likely to find asbestos in the following situations:

(a) as asbestos insulation or coating used for:

(i) thermal insulation of boilers;

(ii) fire protection of structural steelwork;

(iii) thermal and acoustic insulation of buildings;

(b) as asbestos insulating board used in a wide variety of places such as:

(i) fire protection on doors, protected exits, structural steelwork, etc.;

(ii) cladding on walls, ceilings, etc.;

(iii) internal walls and partitions;

(iv) ceiling tiles in a suspended ceiling;

(c) as asbestos cement, which is found as:

(i) corrugated sheets (roofing and cladding of buildings);

(ii) flat sheeting for partitioning, cladding and door facings;

(iii) gutters and downpipes.

Before starting work

If it is not clear whether insulating material, boarding, and so on contain asbestos, bulk sampling and laboratory analysis are necessary. This must be done by someone with suitable training and experience. Alternatively, you may assume that the material contains crocidolite (blue), amosite (brown) or chrysotile (white) asbestos and take appropriate precautions.

Before starting any work with asbestos, an adequate assessment must be made to work out the precautions needed to control the exposure to the substance. Work with asbestos may range from cleaning brake drums of construction plant and vehicles to full-scale asbestos removal.

Carrying out work with asbestos

In many countries those who work with asbestos to any extent, and in particular in removing and disposing of asbestos, require to be licensed or to hold a permit. In working with asbestos insulation board, workers will probably need to wear suitable protective clothing. Only working methods that keep asbestos dust levels as low as possible should be used (e.g. use hand tools and avoid breaking boards).

Asbestos cement is less likely to generate dust than many other asbestos products, but the risk of asbestos dust release is still present.

When cutting asbestos cement, use hand tools (or power tools fitted with exhaust ventilation equipment). Where it is not possible to keep asbestos dust levels under control limits, respirators should be worn. Protective clothing will probably be required for any significant work with asbestos cement. If you have to clean asbestos cement sheeting encrusted with lichens or mosses, a system of wet scraping/brushing is preferred.

Methods of limiting exposure to asbestos dust include:

– removing asbestos materials before starting major demolition work. This prevents accidental exposure to asbestos;

– wet methods of removal (to suppress dust);

– prompt removal and bagging of waste asbestos, and disposal at an approved waste disposal site;

– separating asbestos work areas from other general work areas.

 Lead

Inorganic lead is found in many construction products, e.g. electricity cables, pipes, gutters and old lead sheet roofs. Organic lead is added to motor fuels, and storage tanks will be heavily contaminated.

There is a risk to health from inhaling dust or fumes created by burning or cutting materials containing lead, including painted surfaces, by welding, by grinding or cutting, and by spray painting of leaded paints. Lead can be absorbed when swallowed, usually when food is contaminated, and adequate washing facilities should be provided. Organic lead compounds are readily absorbed through the skin.

Excessive lead absorption causes constipation, abdominal pain, anaemia, weak muscles and kidney damage. It can also affect the brain, causing impaired intellect, strange behaviour, fits and coma. If you work with lead in any form, you should take the following precautions:

– Wash your hands regularly, and always before eating; you are at higher risk if you smoke with lead on your hands.

– Use the protective clothing and respiratory protective equipment which should be provided whenever lead levels exceed national control limits.

– Wear work clothing on the job and store your “street” clothing where it cannot be contaminated by your work clothing.

Discussion

• What precautions have been taken at the site to prevent exposure to hazardous substances?

• Where asbestos is known or suspected to be present at the site, are adequate steps taken to prevent workers from being exposed to the dust?

• Have you noticed or heard any of your co-workers complain of symptoms which you think might be related to or caused by exposure to hazardous substances?

• Can you think of any other hazardous substances used on construction sites?

CHEMICAL WORKING ENVIRONMENT SAFETY

 Chemical substances

A great many chemical substances are used in construction – there is hardly a site without them. They are found in adhesives, cleaning agents for brickwork and stonework, decorative/protective treatments for timber and metals, floor treatments, fungicides, cement and grouts, insulants, sealants, paints, solvents and much else. Of particular importance are solvents, which are liquids commonly used in paint strippers, lacquers, varnishes, surface coatings, thinners and similar cleaning materials.

 Chemicals and their risks

Many chemicals are hazardous, with a potential for fire and explosion, or toxic, with an inherent potential to cause poisoning. Toxic substances cause both acute effects, such as dizziness, vomiting and headaches, produced in a short time by exposure to solvents, and chronic effects resulting from exposure over a long period as in lung diseases such as asbestosis and silicosis. Contact dermatitis may result from the contact between the skin and some chemicals. Acids and alkalis are corrosive and can damage both skin and eyes.

Entry into the body

A chemical can cause injury in various ways depending upon whether it is solid or liquid, or in the form of airborne dust, vapour, fumes or gas. The routes into your body are by:

– inhalation or breathing in. This is the most important route of entry. Some toxic gases and vapours cause irritation in the nose and throat and so give warning of their presence; others do not and penetrate to the lungs or bloodstream. It is the smallest dust particles, those not visible to the naked eye, which reach furthest into the lungs. Inhaled dust accumulates in the lungs, producing changes and causing an incurable disease called “pneumoconiosis”. Breathlessness and inability to work are the eventual consequence. Some dust such as quartz and asbestos destroy the lung tissue and may lead to the development of tuberculosis or cancer;

– ingestion or swallowing. This is possible when you handle chemicals such as lead-based paints and then eat or smoke without first washing your hands, when toxic vapours contaminate cups, plates or eating utensils, or when you eat meals at the work site;

– absorption through the skin. Some solvents can be absorbed through the skin into the blood stream and may travel to internal organs such as the brain and liver. Contact dermatitis or eczema frequently results from the contact between the skin and some chemicals. Acids and alkalis are corrosive and can damage the skin and the eyes on contact. Unless large amounts of water are used at once to rinse the substance off, serious burns will be caused.

Discussion

• What construction processes cause the most dust?

• What precautions are taken?

• In what construction processes are fumes and vapours most likely to be encountered?

• What precautions have been taken on the site against the risk of inhalation of fumes and vapours?

Preventive measures

Accidents and ill health from the use of chemicals can be prevented if you know what chemicals you are using and the risks they pose, and follow the established safe practice in handling them. Generally, there is an order of priority in the measures for dealing with hazardous chemical substances:

• Substitute the chemical with a harmless or less hazardous one.

• Enclose the process using the chemical, or provide other engineering controls such as exhaust ventilation; this is often difficult in construction processes.

• Use personal protective equipment (PPE).

If the use of hazardous chemicals cannot be avoided, here are some basic safety measures you can adopt to protect yourself from danger:

– Keep containers of chemicals in a separate and secure store.

– Because two containers look the same, do not assume that they contain the same material.

– Make sure there is a label on the container (figure 48) – if there is no label, then do not use the contents.

– Read the label and make sure you understand what it says, then follow the instructions.

– If the information is not sufficient to tell you how to handle the chemical safely, ask your supervisor for the chemical safety data sheet (figure 49) and do not use the chemical until you have seen it; if you do not understand it, ask questions until you do.

– Check that you are wearing the correct PPE before you handle chemicals (the chemical safety data sheet should say whether you need gloves, eye protection, protective clothing, rubber boots or respirators) and that the equipment is in good order.

– When opening containers, hold a rag over the cap or lid as some volatile liquids tend to spurt up when this is released; transfer the contents of containers in the open air.

– Avoid breathing in any fumes from chemicals. Provide good ventilation, or work in the open air. Leave the work area immediately if you feel dizzy or unwell.

Point to remember:

• Some chemical hazards are easy to see or smell. However, there are also chemicals that you cannot see or smell, and which therefore present an extreme danger.

– If you are using large quantities of solvents, wear impermeable clothing. Remove any clothing wetted by solvents and leave it to dry in a well-ventilated place.

– Use the smallest quantity of chemicals that is necessary for the particular job.

– Eye protection should be worn when chemicals are being moved or transferred on site.

– When mixing or pouring chemicals using temporary containers, make sure they are suitable and correctly labelled. Never use food or drink containers.

– Wash before you eat and do not eat or smoke at your workstation.

– If the skin is splashed with a chemical, it should be rinsed immediately with plenty of clean running water. Eyes should be flushed out thoroughly with water and should receive immediate medical attention.

– If you are burned by a chemical or feel unwell after using a chemical, seek medical attention without delay.

– If there is a spillage of chemicals on the ground or floor, report the matter at once so that the right action can be taken, such as soaking it up in dry sand.

Point to remember:

• Never use solvents to remove paint or grease from your skin.

 Highly flammable chemicals

Many chemical substances used in construction are highly flammable as well as toxic. The following precautions should be followed when handling or using them:

– Study the label and the instructions on the chemical safety data sheet about safe handling and first-aid measures.

– Remember that all flammable liquids give off vapours which travel unseen into the air and are easily ignited. Never smoke if there are flammable chemicals in the area. Find out what action to take in the case of fire.

– Keep containers in the store until required for use, and return them there when you have finished with them. Store drums upright.

– Treat empty drums with as much care as full ones – they will still contain flammable vapour.

– Always transfer the contents of large containers to small containers in the open air.

– Use funnels and spouts to prevent spillage. Soak up any spillage with dry sand and remove the contaminated sand to a safe place in the open air.

– If you cannot avoid using highly flammable liquids in an enclosed area, make sure there is an adequate supply of fresh air. This can usually be achieved by opening windows and doors to the full. If it is necessary to use a fan, check that the fan is electrically safe to use in a flammable atmosphere.

Discussion

• How would you recognize whether toxic or dangerous chemicals are being used on your construction site?

• Have you or anyone you know shown symptoms or suffered from using chemicals? If so, what were they?

• What steps do you think could have been taken, and were not taken, to prevent these ill-effects?

• What flammable chemicals have you used on construction sites?

POWER DRIVEN MACHINERY HAZARDS

 Power-driven machinery

 Hazards

The use of power-driven machinery on construction sites involves many hazards. Common to many construction machines are in-running nip points where one part rotates against or close to another. Common examples are cog-wheels, chain and sprockets, belts and cylinder drums, and ratchet drives. All nip points should be assumed to be dangerous and should be guarded to prevent approach unless they are enclosed within the machine. Equally dangerous are rotating shafts of whatever diameter and of whatever speed. A common cause of the accident is clothing becoming caught and wrapped around the shaft. If the shaft is not inaccessible within the machine frame, then it must be enclosed – a loose tube covering and resting on the shaft is a cheap, convenient and effective method.

Safety precautions

When you use power-driven construction tools and machinery, make it your regular practice to check whether:

– all protective devices and safety measures supplied with the machine are in position, adjusted and working;

– the machine appears to be safe to use even for an inattentive worker;

– safety devices are strong enough to withstand wear from ordinary use; and

– safety devices do not prevent efficient use of the machine.

If you are not satisfied on any of these points, discuss them with your supervisor.

Point to remember:

• A dangerous part of machinery requires a guard – a warning notice is not a substitute.

 Circular saws

Among the most dangerous power-driven machines found on a construction site is the circular saw, mounted in a bench and used for ripping, deep-cutting or cross-cutting. The main causes of accidents are:

– hands coming into contact with the saw blade either above or below the bench;

– timber being thrown back by the revolving blade;

– the blade fracturing or disintegrating.

The top of the blade should be covered by a form of hood which is designed to prevent your hands touching the part of the blade above the wood being cut. It should be adjusted at the front or leading edge of the saw so that it almost touches the surface of the material being cut, leaving no space for a hand to pass through. Behind the blade, and set not more than 12 mm from it at bench level, should be fitted the device called the riving knife. This prevents the cut closing on the back of the blade causing the material to be thrown back at the operator. These features are shown in.

Parallel to the blade is the fence which acts as a support and guide for the wood being sawn and allows a true cut to be made. It should be locked securely in position before the cut is made.

When the hand-feeding material to the saw blade, use a push-stick to keep your hands away from the blade. Use the push-stick also to remove the cut pieces from between the blade and the fence and to remove offcuts from the bench. When you are ripping long lengths of material, they should be supported as they come off the table.

Always keep the saw teeth sharp and properly set. A dull blade is much more likely to break than a sharp one. Never use a blade which is defective in any way.

Compressed air tools

If air under compression is allowed to penetrate the skin through a scratch, it can cause painful swelling and may result in serious damage if directed at the eyes, nose or ears. The most common cause of accidents with compressed air is its use to dust off clothing at the end of a working shift. There are also serious injuries caused by workers directing compressed air at a colleague in horseplay.

Cartridge-operated tools

Cartridge-operated tools, which are used for direct fixing to concrete, brick and steel, should be fitted with a guard which does not

Points to remember:

• Never leave the saw running after you have used it.

• Always keep the push-stick at the table.

• Never start cleaning above or under the table until the blade has stopped.

Allow the tool to be fired until the guard is accurately positioned against the work.

Head and eye, and hearing protection should always be worn. The area around the fixing should be cleared of workers in case the material splinters or there is a rejection or a ricochet of the fixing. Firing against too soft or thin material may allow the fixing to penetrate it and injure someone on the opposite side.

The recoil from firing the tool may cause the operator to lose balance – it should never be used from a ladder.

Discussion

• What are the risks associated with power-driven machinery? What would you do to minimize these risks?

• What safety devices would you expect to find on a circular saw, and what is their purpose?

WORKING POSTURES GUIDE WHILE USING HAND TOOLS

Working positions, tools and equipment

 Fitting work to people: Ergonomics

The technical development of the construction industry has led to reliance on machines and technical equipment for much heavy work previously done by hand. Although there are still many tasks on site which are carried out using manual labour, it is difficult to envisage high-rise building construction without cranes, excavators, concrete mixers or pile drivers. Mechanization has, however, brought new problems to the workplace.

Technology changes faster than people and technological change often exceed people’s ability to adapt. As a construction worker, you know the difference between a tool that is well suited for you and for the job, and one that is not. You also soon become aware of the difference between a comfortable working posture and one that is uncomfortable. Ergonomics or human engineering is a multidisciplinary way of looking at the interrelationship between the worker, the workstation and the working environment. Ergonomics plays a key role in the humanization of work, in increasing productivity, and in improving safety and health.

Even with new and modern technologies a lot of heavy work is still done by hand. Tools, machines and equipment are in many cases old-fashioned, poorly designed or badly maintained. Many operatives on construction sites are unskilled. Heavy loads frequently have to be carried up and down stairs, ladders and scaffolds, and people working on construction sites often suffer from low back pain or injury to muscles and joints.

The construction industry has a wide range of jobs and processes. These change according to the stage of the project. They involve consideration of:

– working positions, both standing and sitting;

– work which is especially strenuous;

– the use of hand tools and equipment.

Discussion

• How have various machines changed work methods in the construction industry in the past few years?

• What are the positive and negative effects of tower cranes and excavators on your work?

Strenuous and heavy physical work

Continuous heavy manual work increases the rate of breathing and the heart. If you are not in good physical shape, you will tire easily. There are risks involved in working at maximum physical capacity. The use of mechanical power to replace heavy work helps reduce these risks. Mechanical power also helps increase the work opportunities for people with less muscle power. On the other hand, jobs that require no physical effort are often mentally tiring and boring. It is important that the workload is not too heavy and changes during the day. Effective rest periods should always be included in the day’s work.

Discussion

• Is work affected by differences in workers’ heights and weights?

• Are there any jobs on your site that workers try to avoid?

• Name some jobs which are strenuous. Are there any alternative methods to carry out the task with less strain?

 Static loads

The most natural way to work is rhythmically. When sawing with a handsaw, the hand holding the saw is doing dynamic work and the other hand static work. This “dynamic” load enables the muscles to alternate between contraction and relaxation. If an object is lifted up and held in this position, this puts the muscles under a uniform “static” load. Muscles under static load become tired because they are continually contracted, and after a short time the muscles feel painful. A static load on the muscles over a long period will also increase pressure on the heart. The pulse increases because the blood remains in the muscles.

On building sites there are many jobs where the worker is exposed to heavy static loading. Finishing work on walls and ceilings, painting and electrical wiring work frequently require you to work with arms above your shoulder line, and frequent changes of posture are desirable.

 Working Postures

On construction sites people work in a variety of different positions. Some workers are climbing up scaffolds, others are using hammers while on their knees, while others are working on surfaces above their heads. Until recently, little attention has been paid to good working positions. It is frequently argued that construction work unavoidably requires many different and changing postures, but it is clear that the principles developed for good working positions in industry apply also to construction.

Difficult working positions lead to spending longer over tasks and lead to fatigue. For example, working with one’s arms raised rapidly tires the shoulder muscles and work requiring bending or twisting can easily cause back strain. A poor working posture translates into a gradual increase in operation time and an increased possibility of injury or damage to material or equipment.

Sitting and standing positions

Posture is defined by the working method applied and by the tool in use. When considering posture, you have to take into account the reach and muscular power of the worker involved. Where possible, work should be done in a sitting position. However, a standing position is often unavoidable in construction work where high muscular power, greater reach or considerable movement is involved.

A well-designed workstation provides possibilities for the worker to carry out the operation in many positions and postures, both sitting and standing. It also allows the worker to walk a little during the working day.

Although there are very few fixed sites in the construction industry, there are many operations where difficult postures can be improved by simple, low-cost measures. For example, welders often have awkward working postures and a simple, light three-legged stool or chair is useful.

Discussion

• Describe several different working postures you have seen on your site and how they could be improved.

• Hold your hands out straight for a while. How do you feel?

• Bend your body forwards and hold that position. How do you feel?

Work in cabins

Machines with cabins for the operator are frequently used on construction sites. Examples include excavators, tower cranes, bulldozers and trucks. In recent years manufacturers of these machines have paid a great deal of attention to the working conditions of the operator. Regular checking and maintenance are needed if these conditions are to remain intact over the working life of the machine. Here are some key points to check:

– Is there easy access to the cabin?

– Are controls in good working order and within easy reach?

– Is the construction of the cabin solid, is windows and noise insulation in place, and are lights working?

– Is the operator’s seat in good condition, adjustable and securely anchored?

– Is the instrumentation functioning?

– Is the engine exhaust pipe placed away from the cabin and in good condition?

– Are the engine covers and enclosures in place?

Hand tools

There are many different types of hand tool for different kinds of work, such as shovels, axes, crowbars, chisels, screwdrivers, hammers and wrenches. In many instances these tools are bought from an outside vendor without paying any attention to their design or quality.

A good-quality hand tool should be designed to fit the hand and the task. It will earn money and reduce the possibility of accidents. With the proper design of hand tools, work posture can be improved and stress can be reduced, resulting in an improved quality of work.

Accidents with hand tools nearly always arise from some human failing – carelessness, not knowing the right tool for the job,

Points to remember:

• Arrange to sit whenever possible.

• Keep materials, tools and controls within easy reach.

• Make sure you got close enough to the task.

maintain tools and to keep them properly. You need to be correctly instructed in how to use tools and how to look after them.

10.2.1 Selection, use and maintenance

There are basic considerations in selecting, using and maintaining hand tools:

– avoid static load at the shoulder or arm due to the continuous holding of a tool at a raised position or the gripping of a heavy tool;

– avoid awkward wrist angles while using tools such as snips and pliers;

– reduce uncomfortable pressure on the palm or joints of the hand, e.g. from pliers that are too small;

– select the correct weight, size and tool for the job;

– use only tools of good-quality steel – tools made of inferior steel chip and may even shatter when struck, tool heads mushroom, tool jaws open out and cutting tools lose their edge;

– handles should have a smooth finish, should be easy to grasp and should have no sharp edges or corners;

– tools should be firmly fixed and should be regularly checked for splits and cracks; wedges should be checked for tightness of fit;

– tools should be kept free of grease and dirt, and moving and adjustable parts should be well oiled;

– cutting edges should be kept sharp for accurate working and to avoid the need for unnecessary pressure;

– for work on or near electrical apparatus only properly insulated tools should be used;

– tools should be properly stored in boxes, racks, holders or pocket belts and should not be left so that they can fall, roll or be tripped over; cutting edges should be sheathed;

– damaged tools should be immediately repaired or replaced.

Figure 40 illustrates some worn hand tools and those in good condition.

Discussion

• Think of the hand tools commonly used in construction – how would you classify the risks of each and minimize them?